Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) remains one of the most adaptable pathogens in commercial poultry. Complete eradication is not feasible, but its impact can be greatly reduced through an integrated approach that combines vaccination, biosecurity, and continuous surveillance. Each component plays…

Pathogenesis Under natural conditions, the incubation period of enzootic pneumonia is typically 10–16 days, though variations occur depending on age, immune status, and concurrent infections. The disease can appear in pigs as young as two weeks old but is most…

(Acute & Congenital Forms) Calves exposed to BVDV after birth may develop a short, transient illness. Many cases are mild and easily overlooked, but the virus’s impact on the immune system means even a brief infection can predispose calves to…

The control of infectious bronchitis depends on understanding both the complexity of the virus and the nature of the immune response it stimulates. Immunity develops quickly after infection or vaccination but is often short-lived and strain-specific, making diagnosis and vaccine…

Persistent infection occurs when an unborn calf is exposed to non-cytopathic bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) during the critical period of early gestation, typically between day 40 and day 125. At this stage the immune system is not yet capable…

Introduction and Aetiology Enzootic pneumonia, caused by Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, remains one of the most widespread and economically significant respiratory diseases in pigs worldwide. First isolated in the mid-1960s from pigs with pneumonia, M. hyopneumoniae was shown to reproduce the characteristic…

Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is highly contagious and can infect birds of all ages, although younger chickens are most susceptible to severe disease. The virus’s ability to target different organs makes it one of the most versatile pathogens in poultry,…

Diagnosis A clinical diagnosis of swine influenza can only be presumptive, as no single presenting sign is pathognomonic. Typical symptoms such as high fever, coughing, dyspnoea and reduced feed intake must be differentiated from other respiratory conditions including PRRS, PCV2,…

Overview Bovine viral diarrhoea is caused by a pestivirus that affects cattle of all ages, including youngstock. Infection outcomes range from very mild illness to severe systemic disease, depending on the viral strain, immune status of the animal, and whether…

Overview Infectious bronchitis (IB) remains one of the most economically significant diseases of poultry worldwide. Caused by a highly contagious avian coronavirus, it affects chickens of all types and ages and can compromise both respiratory and reproductive performance. The virus…

Treatment Timely intervention improves recovery and reduces production losses.  Treatment typically includes: Control & Prevention Reducing pneumonia incidence depends on both disease-control measures and management:

Swine influenza remains a major cause of acute respiratory disease in pigs worldwide. Although typically short-lived and self-limiting, outbreaks can cause rapid herd-wide morbidity, reduced performance, and, in breeding stock, reproductive disturbances. Its significance extends beyond pig health, as swine…

Clinical signs The onset of pneumonia in calves can be gradual or sudden, depending on the pathogens involved and the level of lung damage.  Early cases often begin with non-specific signs that are easy to overlook: As the disease progresses,…

Avian metapneumovirus (aMPV) is now regarded as an endemic infection in most major poultry-producing regions. Complete eradication is unlikely, but the disease can be effectively controlled through a combination of biosecurity, vaccination and sound flock management. Success depends on consistency,…

Aetiology Calf pneumonia (enzootic pneumonia / bovine respiratory disease complex) develops when several factors overlap: respiratory pathogens, reduced immunity, and environmental or management stress. Young calves are especially at risk during the first weeks and months of life. The main…